Why Abortion Is Immoral An Argumentative Analysis Essay Example

Why Abortion Is Immoral: An Argumentative Analysis Essay The argument on the immorality of abortion is a long standing philosophical discourse which opens itself to numerous discussions or even attacks. That the pro-choice and anti-abortionists stances stand or fail is based on the strength or weakness of the other’s claim against the other and vice versa. The morality or immorality of abortion, however, leaves an open question which also leaves the partisans reflecting on whether or not there can be a clear and evident claim of its morality or immorality, wrongness or otherwise. Don Marquis’ â€Å"Why Abortion is Immoral†(1989) is an argumentative essay that attempts to dissect the assumptions for and against abortion with the end view of presenting an alternative proposition that generally sets up a discussion that abortion is seriously immoral. This essay seeks to further dissect Marquis’ work and critically analyze his propositions and arguments to present its successes and failures in defending its own thesis. Conversely, this essay does not seek to argue on whether abortion is right or wrong, but rather, seeks to analyze the arguments of Marquis on the immorality of abortion. Although Marquis’ arguments seem generally sound and plausible, it admits of some inconsistencies and weaknesses which this essay seeks to address in the hope of suggesting possible enhancements in his discourse. Marquis’ Propositions and Arguments Marquis’ essay sets out an argument that â€Å"purports to show, as well as any argument in ethics can show, that abortion is, except possibly in rare cases, seriously immoral, that it is in the same moral category as killing an innocent adult human being.†(p. 183). To do this, he sets up analyses of numerous arguments on the wrongness or soundness of abortion. First, he analyzed the standard anti-abortion and pro-choice arguments. Then, he presented arguments on the ethics or morality of killing to establish the wrongness of killing and thereafter derive his justification for the immorality of abortion. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Abortion Is Immoral: An Argumentative Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Why Abortion Is Immoral: An Argumentative Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Why Abortion Is Immoral: An Argumentative Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer To Marquis, the anti-abortionists’ and the pro-choice’s claims stand on similar strengths and suffers from similar weaknesses. Anti-abortionists argue that life is present from the moment of conception while pro-choice partisans argue that fetuses are not persons. The anti-abortionists stand, according to him tends to be too broad in scope such that even fetuses at the early stage of pregnancy will fall under this category. The pro-choice argument, on the other hand, tends to adapt an argument that is too limited such that fetuses shall not fall under it. In fine, the pro-choice adapts the person account. If even fetus, however, are to be considered persons, it may be problematic to characterize them as such because a ‘person’ typically is defined in terms of psychological characteristics which the fetus do not have as of yet. On the other hand, if fetuses are to be considered human beings, there is a need to identify if it shall be categorized as biologica l or moral. If biological, the challenge is explaining why biological category should make a moral difference if it is moral. If this is the case, then the anti-abortionist cannot use the argument that fetuses are human beings because this morality is what is needed to be proved. Marquis claims, however, that â€Å"a pro-choice strategy that extends the definition of ‘person’ to infants or even to young children seems just as arbitrary as an anti-abortion strategy that extends the definition of a ‘human being’ to fetuses.†   Because of this existing and seemingly irresolvable standoff, Marquis suggested a more theoretical account on the wrongness of killing to resolve the abortion controversy. Marquis presented a number of arguments why killing is wrong. He explained the brutalization concept of killing which makes it wrong, that is, it brutalizes the victim and is focused not on the loss brought to the victim’s friends or relatives. Under this premise, killing is wrong because it inflicts one of the greatest possible losses on the victim—the loss to him of all those activities, projects, experiences and enjoyments which could have otherwise constituted the victim’s future personal life. There, however, should be value on these activities or personal future life. Marquis then resorts to explaining the wrongness in terms of the natural property account. The point of analysis according to him is to establish which natural property ultimately explains the wrongness of killing given that it is wrong. Thus, what makes killing a particular human wrong is what it does to that particular human. Here, he derives the future-like-ours account to state that killing is wrong. Under this account, it is required that there be a perceived future for the being, then a value for that future, and a perceived valuer, otherwise, it defeats the purpose of the argument. The fetus may not be able to value his future or his own life, but some other may value it for him just as in the case of some suicidal youth, or the severely unconscious. He then makes reference to the discontinuation account. Based on this, what makes killing wrong is the discontinuation of the experience of living and the wish for valuable experience to continue. Conversely, continued existence, requires the desire to continue his existence. Absence of this desire to continue leaves another question. The desire account requires that there be a capacity to desire, otherwise, there can be no perceived value of the future (consider mentally ill, or the unconscious who do not have the capacity to desire). The loss of the value of the future of the victim, however, is not supported by the biological category of the wrongness of killing. It also neglects the idea that they may be some other creatures who may also have futures and the question is what it is in their futures that makes it wrong to be taken away. Finally, it discounts the possible future of pain that may be avoided by the severely ill who may opt for active euthanasia instead. To derive his argument that abortion is seriously wrong, he needed to base his argument not on the personhood but on the account that the concept of ‘person’ is used to state the conclusion of the analysis rather than to generate the argument of the analysis. He suggests to state the argument by â€Å"starting the analysis in terms of the value of the human future, conclude that abortion is, except perhaps in rare circumstances, seriously morally wrong, infer that fetuses have the right to life and then call fetuses ‘persons’ as a result of their having the right to life.†(p.192) Despite these accounts for the wrongness of killing, these alternative general accounts still unsuccessfully or inadequately got around the anti-abortion consequences of the value of a future-like-ours argument. Marquis’ suggestion was to limit the scope of the value of a future-like-ours argument by arguing that fetuses lack a property that is essential for the value of a future-like-ours argument to apply to them. He counter argues, however, that his proposition stands because it may not be necessary that it be the fetus who values his life but it may be some other person. Another argument presented is whether or not an embryo or fetus may be victimized. He cites Bassen who says that embryos lack mentation that establishes the reason why fetuses and embryos cannot be victims and therefore cannot be the basis for the wrongness of abortion. Marquis overturns this by noting that Bassen’s examples and discussions eventually lead to deprivation of a value of a future-like-ours and not mentation as the basis of the victimization. Marquis, argues, that in fact, â€Å"embryos can be victims: when their lives are deliberately terminated, they are deprived of their futures of value, their prospects† and this fact makes them victims because it directly wrongs them. Despite his proposition that majority of deliberate abortions are seriously immoral, Marquis does not consider contraception as wrong. To him, nothing at all is denied such a future by contraception because in his analysis, there is in fact no subject of harm. Accordingly, Marquis claim that â€Å"the immorality of contraception is not entailed by the loss of the a future-like-ours argument simply because there is no nonarbitrary identifiable   subject of the loss in the case of contraception.†(p.202) Finally, Marquis was able to propose an alternative generalization on the immorality of abortion. His purpose of setting out an argument for the serious presumptive wrongness of abortion based on the assumption that the moral permissibility of abortion stands or falls on the moral status of the fetus was successfully laid out. Strengths and Weakness of Marquis’ Arguments Marquis’ essay is quite impressive in that it was able to deliver a deliberate and provocative analysis of existing arguments on abortion. In order to derive his position, he in fact delved into numerous philosophical accounts and went into categorically offering the premises, the arguments and even the possible counter-arguments for and against the wrongness of abortion. His persuasive style of writing is engaging in that he makes reference to his readers in attempting to appeal both to their pathos and logos. His use of â€Å"us† and â€Å"or you, reader† (as in pages 190 and 193) repeatedly in the text on the subject of killing is an effective tool in involving the readers in the active thought process. A closer analysis of his discussion, however, reveals some weaknesses. It is worthy of note that his thesis is not capable of standing on its own in that its soundness rests to some extent on the unsoundness of the arguments on which it was based or grounded.   Thus, its strength lies in the weakness of other arguments, and its full understanding is reliant upon the understanding of the consequences of other premises and argument. In the process, Marquis was successful in delivering his points. He presented his contemporaries arguments along with their weaknesses, delivered his personal propositions and even offered the possible attacks on his arguments. He offered strategies on dismantling standoffs or of avoiding certain consequences by limiting the scope of specific arguments. In the end, however, he left the readers to fill in the gaps and knit together his arguments rather than offering them a definite suggestion. How and why his conclusions are derived at is left to the discretion and understanding of the readers of how he presented his ideas. In the text, one may notice that he explicitly excluded or tried to avoid certain issues. For example, he neglected issues of great importance to a complete ethics of abortion (p. 183) and   what it is about our future or the future of other adult human beings which makes it wrong to kill us (p.191).   In order to stress his conclusion, he deliberately left out some issues and focused on some other. That he presented these issues by excluding them from his analysis, however, brought more questions unanswered and left his readers in quandary on how his argument could have been arrived at if the issues he avoided had been considered in the analysis. What could have happened to his arguments if these issues were in fact discussed and included? Could they have made his argument weak or illogical? Or could they have strengthened his argument? Probably not. Consequently, this further created gaps in the full understanding of the text. The author seems to be in the habit of opening a lo t of discussions but leaves them hanging. Although he may have done this on purpose so as to limit his discourse, the resultant is a less than likely confusion or misconception. Note that in the previous section of this essay, Marquis discussed and established the wrongness of killing to a great extent then diverted to his initial thesis on the serious immorality of abortion as if they are one in the same thing. He apparently seems to claim that wrong is equivalent to immoral. What he failed to do, however, is to establish what makes killing immoral to surmount it to the level that would make abortion seriously immoral in general. To him, the answer may have been obvious, but to logically think about it, he could have presented the morality issues of killing as it related to the wrongness of killing first then established the serious immorality of abortion. Marquis’ style is a bit cyclic in that he jumps from one concept to another and then goes back to a previous concept so as to drive at his comparisons of theories and propositions. It was advantageous in that it opens the readers to a lot logical and illogical possibility in trying to assess his points. This style, however, requires the reader to go over and over the previous discussions and arguments to refresh his memory. Otherwise, readers find it difficult to draw connections between and among his propositions. In short, his discourse is quite difficult to contextualize in relation to other concepts in one reading. The author proposes in the conclusion that a fetus possesses a property, the possession of which in adult human beings is sufficient to make killing an adult human being wrong, thus, abortion is wrong, but failed to discuss in more detail what this property of a fetus is all about as compared to the property of an adult human being who have a valuable future ahead. In the beginning of the essay, it seems that the thesis is that it purports to show that abortion is seriously immoral and that it is in the same moral category as killing an innocent adult human being. At the end of the essay, however, he says that â€Å"the thesis of this essay is that the problem of the ethics of abortion, so understood, is solvable.† They do not seem to clearly jive at all, or at least clearly define what was in the entire text of the discussion. In fact, his closing left another question hanging. Solvable in what sense, then? Does the author mean to say that his generalization that abortion is seriously immoral has solved the problem of the ethics of abortions? There is a strong reason to disagree. In fact, his jumping from his initial thesis that abortion in general is seriously immoral was not clearly sustained in the entire text when he eventually referred to it as a disputable presumption later in the discussion. He explicitly claimed that â€Å"abortion is presumptively seriously wrong, where the presumption is very strong—as strong as the presumption that killing another   adult human being is strong†(p.194). A counter argument, however, that he failed to recognize, or probably avoided, is the issue of what it is in the nature of a thing that could break this strong presumption that killing an adult human being is wrong that could also be made applicable to a fetus which could probably support or dismantle the argument that abortion is presumptively very seriously wrong. How similarly (or differently) situated are adults and fetuses to have (or not have) this strong presumption? In sum, Marquis’ essay is impressive in that it was able to deliver a highly critical analysis and argumentation on the wrongness of abortion. That a few weaknesses was identified in this analysis of his paper, however, does not serve to mitigate or totally overturn his arguments, but merely provided for an alternative suggestion in improving his arguments.

Achebe and Post-Colonialism in Anthills of the Savannah Essays

Achebe and Post-Colonialism in Anthills of the Savannah Essays Achebe and Post-Colonialism in Anthills of the Savannah Paper Achebe and Post-Colonialism in Anthills of the Savannah Paper In this line, Aba agrees that Is classified as a social realist?C,? (11). This Is not surprising, considering the fact the basic theory underlying post-colonialism Is sociology and culture as testified to by Shish in his statement that post-colonialism concerned with the study the coming together of two or more cultures and languages?C,-1?0 (4). Post-colonial authors use language and culture as tools for distinguishing their works and showing Its uniqueness. The importance of language is fundamental to post-colonial writings as Noggin states in his landmark book Decontrolling the Mind: The Politics of Language In African Literature. He explains that language carries culture, and culture carries particularly through orate and literature, the entire body of values by which we come to perceive our place In the (16). In the achievement of using language, there is the argument of whether to use a local language or to use the language of the imperials that is far reaching. This forms the crux of the debate between Achebe and Noggin. Noggin argues that the use of the English language would enrich It to the detriment of local languages. Achebe on the other hand argues for the use of English for Its several benefits. He says that the African writer aim at fashioning out an English which is at once universal and able to carry out his peculiar experience?C,-1? (Morning Yet on Creation Day 61). It Is In this light that he makes a summary of the use of English saying that he feels the English language will be able to carry the weight experience. But it will have to be a new English, still in full OFF communion Walt Its ancestral none out altered to soul t Its new Attract surroundings C,-1?0 (62). In this fashioning, other post-colonial writers make use of such linguistic strategies as the use of local untranslatable words (diplomacy), abrogation and appropriation. Abrogation refers to the denial of a set norm or standard (Imperial) language while appropriation refers to a seizure of the language, a remolding that localizes it. In this way, the language is made local either through the of the privilege of which involves a rejection of the metropolitan power over the means of communication [abrogation]? C,-1?0 (Empire Writes Back 38) or the seizure of the language which it under the influence of a vernacular tongue, the complex of speech habits which characterize the local language?C,-1?0 (Empire Writes Back 39). Post-colonial writers also use cultural tools such as affiliation and hybrid to in the achievement of their target. Affiliation, as the term suggests, is a derivative of Affiliation refers to a certain history pedigree, or ancestry. This is better explained by Edward Said who defines affiliation as or ancestry, as in a child being bonded to her/his [sic] parent by blood, body and soul?C,-1?0 (CTD in Aba 43). This shows literature to be connected afflictively to the discourse of (Key Concepts 106). Affiliation is a disclaimer of this norm and is the direct opposite of affiliation. Ashcroft, Griffith and Tiffin give a summary of this difference saying that affiliation refers to lines f descent in nature, affiliation refers to a process of identification through send the critical gaze beyond the narrow confines of the European and canonically literary into this cultural text can now be seen to be affiliated with the network of history, culture and society within which it comes into being and is read Key Concepts Hybrid refers to the combination of two or more elements. In post-colonial discourse, it shows the complex of the colonized who are a mixture of two worlds; that of the colonizers and that of theirs. To Ashcroft, Garret and Tiffin, it involves interaction of English writing with the older traditions of orate or literature in post-colonial societies, and the emergence of a writing which has a major aim, the assertion of social and cultural difference? (Key Concepts 118). Finally, the writers implore their personal voices as a tool for the reclamation of their literature. Authorial voice here, to borrow from Susan Lenses is presence and attitude of a textual voice [and the] stylistic, philosophic centre of a novel?C,-1?0 (CTD in Aba 13).

How Children Playing Sports Contributed to a Well-Rounded Child Research Paper

How Children Playing Sports Contributed to a Well-Rounded Child - Research Paper Example The energy possessed by children needs to be fully utilized in co-curricular activities such as sports. Therefore, a well-rounded child can be viewed as that child, who has totally developed physically, socially and mentally thru playing sports from early childhood (Humphrey). Having children participate in sporting activities has over time led to controversies in opinions and as such a bond of contention between educational institutions and other stake holders. Some scholars hold contrary opinions on whether or not children should participate in sports. â€Å"Critics have condemned sport for fostering excessive violence, an overemphasis on competition and winning, and the exploitation of individuals. Sport proponents have extolled the value of sport as a contributor to health, personal fulfillment, and community integration.† (School sports, Encyclopedia of Education). It is vital to have a glance at how sport produces positive results in the education sector and other settin gs for young children. Among the reasons behind these controversies is the notion that if the sports are not well organized can pose a number of dangers notably; cognitive and psychological. Kirk Ericson in his article titled, â€Å"The Negative Effects of Youth Sports† asserts thus â€Å"competitive sports may be too stressful for children; therefore a need to control what sport children play otherwise sports can be injurious. Among the effects cited in the article include; physical injuries on the bones, sprains and strains on the muscles and tendons, injuries inflicted on growth plates and heat related ailments. The other effect justifying by Shields and Gilbert is why kids should not participate in sport activities is because of early burnouts, as a result of stress reaction caused by overstraining and too much play that can dehydrate the child’s body. The article further advocates for a creation of an environment where children will be able to participate and vie w sport as a source of fun and enjoyment. The other factor against sport activities by children is that in the event of competition and play kids use large amounts of energy and therefore the planners of children sport need to engage the services of the diet and nutrition specialists to help guard against inadequate nutrition otherwise sports for children will generate more harm than good. In the contrary opinion scholars and physical education specialists cite enormous benefits gained by children in sports. As stated in one of the articles, â€Å"Numerous studies by Shields and Gilbert support the positive relationship that exists between psychological well-being and regular involvement in physical activity, especially in the areas of reduction of anxiety and depression.† Physically, sport helps children develop a well-built structure of their bodies, for example, the muscles and bones. As Brewer, asserts child development demonstrates that children develop through shared ac tivities such as sports. â€Å"Children grow in and through connections with others† supports the fundamental importance of warm, trusting, supportive and close interpersonal sport relationships to overall well-being (Brewer). Sports therefore play a major role in the social development of a child; it is through play that virtues such as cooperation, team work, discipline, trust, just play and game skills are developed. Intellectual development of

Higher education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Higher education - Essay Example I agree that too many people are joining colleges. There are several opportunities apart from going to college, and they are all viable. There are so many people going to college, and the most interesting thing is that there is a high rate of drop out compared to those graduating. The graduation rate is low as described by Murray in his article. It is evidential that there are six months certificates which are flexible as compared to four years stay in college. Also, most of the students spend up to six years in college; they could have invested the time in more viable ventures. All people that go to the college do not become successful. At the same time, too many people are joining the colleges leading the current education system into shamble (Murray 225). According to statistics, from the financial institutions, the competence of the financial students is wanting. Most of the people have tried to be fit and conform to the social norms of the society. No one is bound to fit into the social norm of the society, in fact, they must use creative and critical thinking does decide if to join the college or to become an electrician. The fact that too many people are going to college does not affect or influence an individual’s decision of joining the college. Joining the college must not me a communal decision but a personal decision (Murray 230). It is important to note that, not everyone who has the ability to make it through to college. Most of the skills must be learned in the alimentary and middle school. Murray describes the education system as a failing strategy. Most of the people in the society believe that everyone in the society must have a bachelor’s degree to be considered in the job market. People must do what they are good at and not what the society tells them to do. Money is not the reason for joining

Media and Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Media and Communication - Essay Example 210-212). Blog is also a kind of social networking site. According to Enzer (1994), Blog can be defined as a website or webpage manage by an individual or organization or group of people in which items are posted on a regular basis and displayed in a reverse chronological order. According to him the word blog is a short form of weblog. Maintaining a blog or adding any article or comments in any existing blog is knows as blogging. Articles or comments post in a blog known as blog posts, posts or entries. A person who is making these posts is the blogger. Generally a blog is consisting of text, hypertext, images, and links. According to Enzer, it is a more conventional way of documentation (Enzer, 1994). According to Rowse (2005), there are some features associated with any blog. These are archives and comments. Archives of any blog consist of old massages or post made by any individual on any blog. As the comments posted in blogs are arranged reverse chronological orders, so the older post goes to the archives. Comments are the feedback given by individuals about the particular blog or about the current topic which is under discussion (Rowse, 2005). Analysis of Blog: This work is all about analyzing a particular blog in respect of its context, style, designing, popularity and relevance to the society. The blog we are reviewing here is Golf’s Girl Diary. The blog Golf Girl’s Diary was one of the first blog associated with the sports of golf, owned by golfer Patrica Hannigan. She is from Danbury CT. It is unique in many ways. First of all it is associated with golf and owned by a women golfer. Secondly it is one of first independent golf blog managed by a lady golfer. So the curiosity about the topic of this blog is always on the higher side. In her blog, she has various comments and article associated with golf lifestyle as well as travel publication. She is also well known as she appeared on inside edition and Good Morning America. One main thing a ssociated with this blog is, after the Tiger Woods saga in Golf, she has become a go to voice in terms of female perspective in the sport of golf. The design of the blog is very attractive and eye catchy. Uses of different colors on the home page of this blog make it even more interesting. The home page consist of her info give us an overview of who is she, what she up to and also about the significance of this blog. Her blog gives us an overview of the book Little Tartan, which is written by her and dedicated to all the women who want to be a golfer but not able to be. The overview of the book also gives us a clear idea about her mindset, her ways to look forward to the life and how she takes the life. In her blog post there are links of almost all the golf player who are well known in this sport. On a way one can consider this blog as a small encyclopedia about modern day golf players. Apart from the details of the players there are few videos also which also interesting. Overall the arrangement and structure of the blog is very attractive. Now let’s discuss about her blogs. As she is a golf player it is obvious that her blogs also related to the sports itself. In her blog posts she has discussed every possible minute details, technical

Does Britain Have an Underclass?

Does Britain Have an Underclass? What is an underclass and does it exist in Britain today? The idea of the existence of an underclass isn’t by any means new. Charles Murray is perhaps the best known researcher who has studied the underclass both in the US and Britain. Murray arrived in Britain in 1989 from the US where he suggested that a huge underclass had already emerged and he wanted to compare Britain to the US. He described in his 1990 paper â€Å"the Emerging British Underclass† that it was spreading â€Å"like a plague through our social fabric†, concluding that Britain does indeed have an underclass and predicting that by the year 2000 it would have grown to dramatic proportions. This essay shall examine the theory of underclass by Charles Murray and some alternative opinions by his critics in order to exemplify what a complex subject the underclass is. Murray’s prediction of an existing and indeed expanding underclass will also be examined. It is impossible to examine the concept of underclass without looking at an example of class theory of which there are many. Just one has been selected, that of Runciman (1990). He suggests that there are seven classes in British society the upper class, three middle classes (upper, middle and lower) two working classes (skilled and unskilled) and an underclass. Runciman describes the underclass as those who are â€Å"excluded from the labour market entirely† (cited in Marshall, 1997). This could be because of disability, being in debt, or through lack of skill and are highly likely to be women or/and in the ethnic minorities. These are not causal factors. The main feature of the underclass is long term unemployment. Murray (1990) agrees that long term unemployment and it’s increase is the cause of the underclass along with the rise of single parenthood. Welfare benefits are too easily available for these groups he argues, thereby creating a â€Å"culture of dependency†. Murray’s definition of â€Å"underclass† is not concerned with the degree of poverty but a type of poverty and supports the view that the underclass are defined by their behaviour. They devalue the work ethic and are often associated with anti social behaviour and crime. He argues that the provision of welfare benefits for single parents have contributed towards the decline of the traditional nuclear family. Murray focuses on illegitimacy seeing it as a different â€Å"problem† from divorce, separation or widowhood. He sees that children who have only ever known one parent from birth are more likely to be in the underclass than those who have, at some point, experienced having two parents. He co ncluded that illegitimacy was more common in households that were poor than rich and also in white families more than black or Asian (although he doesn’t see â€Å"race† or ethnicity, or gender as a contributory factor). He makes a distinction between the short term unemployed and those who are long term â€Å"economically inactive†. The reliance on benefits and devaluation of work perpetuates from generation to generation, thereby forming early socialisation into the counter-culture referred to as the â€Å"underclass†. The class theory of Runciman and the meaning of underclass according to Murray are not the only theories in existence. The complexity of it means one fixed definition cannot be attributed to it. Critics of Murray suggest that there is a tendency in his work to blame the underclass themselves, whereas societal factors need to be considered. Glasgow (1980) argues that the economy has failed to provide equal opportunities. Inequalities mean that some groups are excluded. Field (1989) blames the Thatcher government for rewarding the rich and punishing the poor and suggests that social problems are interconnected. One particular part of Murray’s theory that has attracted criticism is the focus on illegitimate1 children. Brown (cited in Lone Parent Families, Ed: Donnellan, 2004) argues that it is unfair to label illegitimate children as being in the â€Å"underclass†. In many cases of divorce or separation, the absent parent doesn’t contribute financially at all or con tributes very little, thereby placing their child and former partner amongst the groups that are not so well off . Statistics have shown that single parenthood has risen in Britain supporting Murray’s prediction. Britain has the highest rate of teenage pregnancies in Western Europe, the second highest in the world. The figures for the number of illegitimate children in 1988 in Britain was 25.6%. The 2001 census showed that as many as one in four children are being raised in a single parent family. 90% of single parents are women. Single teenage parents are most likely to be amongst the poorest. Child care facilities are expensive and working hours may not be flexible. Studies have shown that if they do find work they may start at the very bottom of the ladder in part time or temporary positions with few benefits, perhaps only earning slightly more than they would on benefits. If they do try and get themselves out of hardship, it would prove incredibly difficult. Finding work does not necessarily mean that someone will be out of poverty. Murray fails to mention the elderly, often seen in Britain as outside of mainstream society, despite what their position was during their working life. Field (1989) cites the underclass as consisting of single parents, the long term unemployed and the frail, elderly pensioner. Many critics of Murray argue that income and wealth need to be equal to give the elderly better lives. Efforts have been made such as free eye tests, free television license and winter fuel payments. However, this help is not available to all pensioners and those in social policy would like to see a return to a link between pensions and earnings (which was abolished in 1980) which would help lift the elderly out of poverty (source: the Joseph Rowntree Foundation website). Government policies have been implemented to try and alleviate problems. Charles Murray eventually stopped providing Government with possible policies because of pessimism about their capabilities to change things. Figures for February 2006 showed that the employment rate was 74.5% but this figure was down by 0.4% over the year. 51% of those unemployed were women. However, the number of job vacancies had decreased. Those taking part in Government schemes such as the New Deal are not included in unemployment figures. Critics suggest that the Government create these schemes so that unemployment figures drop but putting people into poorly paid work will not lift them out of the underclass. Preston (2005) emphasises that the benefit system for those not working is inadequate and often inaccessible (for example to asylum seeker families) so therefore doesn’t provide the security Murray suggests it does. It is impossible to give an adequate definition of what the underclass is as it is very much a disputed concept. Ideas of what the underclass actually is have been mentioned here, notably Murray who suggests that the British underclass is a subculture in itself and tends to blame the people within it rather than societal circumstances. Critics blame inequalities in education, job opportunities, housing and so on. It can be concluded that there are sections of society that could be termed the â€Å"underclass†, desperately needing Government to create policies to help them out of poverty and that those outside the mainstream society are growing asylum seeker families are certainly excluded from mainstream education and a chance to work adding to those living in poverty in this country. In this respect, Murray was right in that those living in poverty has grown. Social scientists and policy makers however do not always agree on who actually makes up the â€Å"underclass† . Word count: 1252 References Brown J (2004) Quoted in Lone Parent Families Ed: Donnellan, Scotland, Independence Educational publishers Field, F , (1989) Losing out: The Emergence of Britain’s Underclass, Oxford, Blackwell Marshall G (1997) Social class and underclass in Britain and the USA (an essay from Social Differences and Divisions Ed: Braham P Janes L (2002) Oxford, Blackwell in association with the Open University) Murray C (1990) The Emerging British Underclass cited in Morris L (1993) Dangerous classes, London, Routledge Preston G, (2005) Quoted in Child Poverty Action Group Manifesto: Ten Steps to a Society Free of Child Poverty, CPAG (white paper) Internet source Joseph Rowntree Foundation (online) Social Exclusion Unit: Breaking the Cycle: Taking Stock of Priorities for the Future, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004 Internet source

Racial tensions and problems Essay

Racial tensions and problems are common for multiracial countries. They are unavoidable as wherever there is a mixture of cultures, there always is prejudice. As far as the history is concerned, blacks were the ones to whom the hatred was directed the most. Laissez-faire- the initial policy of the British government towards migration proved to work for country’s disadvantage, which only became clear in the years that followed. Negroes, Indians, Asians or any other ethnic minority whose skin color is darker than that of WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants) are referred to as black. For these people the term â€Å"equality of opportunity† is far from the truth and their struggle for â€Å"freedom† seems to be endless. They experience many humiliations on everyday basis and often are objects of bullying. They find it difficult to assimilate owing to many reasons and the society is not helping them at all. However, in accordance with some claims, there exist certain opportunities that these people may take an advantage of. The children of black families are said to be the ones that can make the most of the two cultures- the native and the target one. Owing to their susceptibility, it is easier for them to assimilate than for their parents who have a strong feeling of identity and are often nostalgic about their origin. Mixed schools are places where black children learn about the target culture and socialize with their friends of different origins. It is an opportunity for them to enrich their cultural values and at the same time preserve their own. Due to the disrespectful attitude they meet with everyday, these children become much more motivated to do well at school than their peers. It is education that is inculcated into their mind since it is essential to lead a decent and respectful life in future. On the other hand, schools are often places of terror for black students. In fact, they are bullied and intimidated on every occasion. There are many racist groups including skinheads, whose ideologies are close to that of Nazis. â€Å"The skinheads beat the Bengalis with baseball bats and bottles  and drove at them in a van. One Asian was beaten unconscious  as the mob returned for a second assault just minutes  after the first one. When police searched their van they found  a swastika flag, white supremascist literature as well as machete,  axe, knives and a CS cannister.† (‘Asian Weekly’ 12 July 1993) Blacks are considered as enemies or plague of the country and these subgroups refer to themselves as the cure. Their severe attacks most often have fatal effects or even result in suicides. The victims are innocent adolescents whose only crime seems to be their complexion. Strange as it may seem, elocution and clothing can contribute a lot to an improvement of ones image and status. There are numerous blacks who became successful on television or in politics and many other walks of life. These people surely do not consider themselves different from their parents or ancestors; neither do they consider themselves better. It is hard work that has got them so far and they have every right to be proud of themselves. This may be regarded as the very last step of acculturation where a person is fully assimilated and integrated into the target culture. At this stage one may say that the opportunities for blacks become almost equal with those of WASP. People seeing a black man on television reading news no longer see a black speaker but a speaker who happens to be black and that is a grave difference. It can be safely said that speech manner and impeccable appearance combined with good education opens a window of opportunities for blacks, however, not many of them are willing to accept this chance. â€Å"The fact that many black teenagers dress in the style  of extremist groups, such as the rap group Public Enemy,  conjures up images of hostility and aggression in some people’s  minds. Rightly or wrongly, they will be equated with the attitudes  that such groups represent.† (‘The Sunday Times’ 30 August 1992) Making an effort to assimilate is crucial. Most of young blacks do exactly the opposite. Their appearance and offensive language stray too far from the established norms that exist in a given society. By doing that they exhibit a very negative attitude toward life, which is portrayed not as a desire to assimilate but the converse. Because of the facts presented above only a small percentage of blacks gains respect and a good position in life. This gave rise to something which was termed an â€Å"affirmative action†. All it meant was that employers, to some extent, were forced to give job to people from ethnic minorities. In every institution there must have been a certain percentage of these people employed in order to create a general feeling of equality. Positive as it may seem, this also created problems. It was a â€Å"backstab† for people of the target culture because their jobs were threatened. General attitude was that blacks are given the jobs of whites who are often better skilled to do them. Considering an assembly-line job it did not matter much but a police force was more serious issue. Blacks were teamed with whites to patrol the streets not because their abilities or test scores were high but because they were black and that was an outrage. The society was very negative toward the idea of affirmative action and remained so until today. All in all, I would venture to say that the parents are the ones to be blamed for the problems that their children have with assimilation. It is often their attitude and the feeling of nostalgia that does not allow the youngsters to adopt the target culture. The children are left confused and undergo an identity crisis trying to reconcile themselves to a particular culture. This is where all the problems result from and they seem to outweigh the opportunities that I presented above. Yet, the hope for better future is still at hand. Next generations of blacks will certainly analyze the faults their parents and grandparents had made and allow more freedom of choice for their children. REFERENCES ‘Skinhead mob jailed for attack on Asians’ in â€Å"Asian Weekly† (12th July 1993) ‘Young, gifted and not-too-black’ in â€Å"The Sunday Times† (30th August 1992) BIBLIOGRAPHY Fiedler, E., Jansen, R. and M. Norman-Risch., 1995. America in close-up. Harlow, Longman. O’Driscoll, J., 1995. Britain. Oxford, OUP. ‘Growing up BLACK in Britain’ in â€Å"She† (January 1991) ‘My parents are racist’ in â€Å"Just Seventeen† (1st June 1994) ‘Skinhead mob jailed for attack on Asians’ in â€Å"Asian Weekly† (12th July 1993) ‘When Asian youths hit back’ in â€Å"The Guardian† (16th september 1993) ‘Young, gifted and not-too-black’ in â€Å"The Sunday Times† (30th August 1992)